Sperm dysfunction is the most common cause of infertility in men. Genetic studies have revealed that mutations in the X chromosome and autosomal genes impair spermatogenesis, which has been reported in various animal models, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila (fruit fly), and Mus musculus (mouse) ( 12). Around 4,000 genes have been reported to participate in human spermatogenesis. Abnormalities in chromosome structure and number have been found in 4% of patients with azoospermia or oligozoospermia, as an abnormal chromosome structure leads to abnormal meiosis and spermatogenesis failure ( 11). Several genetic abnormalities have been associated with impaired spermatogenesis. It is regulated by a myriad of factors that are involved in the development of subfertility. Spermatogenesis is a complex differentiation process in which cells transform from spermatogonia to mature sperm through many stages and is a key event in male fertility. We also discuss the conclusions and future perspectives on male infertility.įactors influencing spermatogenesis impairment and male infertility We present the positive and negative effects of macronutrients and micronutrients genetic, environmental, and endocrine factors and trace elements on male spermatogenesis and fertility. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review on the effects of nutrients on male infertility. ![]() This review provides up-to-date information to better understand the positive and negative effects of selected macronutrients and micronutrients on male fertility. Dietary and feed supplements can improve the male reproductive performance and help eliminate infertility. The lack of some trace elements can also perturb reproductive function and sperm quality, which can negatively impact spermatogenesis, sperm quality, and male fertility ( 10).Ĭhemical elements play important roles in male reproduction because imbalance of micronutrients or macronutrients may lead to spermatogenesis defects and decreased libido, resulting in male infertility. Magnesium and calcium maintain the osmotic balance of the male reproductive system and contribute to nutrient transport and gland function. Zinc, manganese, selenium, and copper have antioxidant effects and reduce lipid peroxidation ( 9). These elements are essential for normal spermatogenesis and sperm movement, maturation, and capacitation ( 8). Human semen contains many trace elements, such as iron, zinc, copper, strontium, selenium, molybdenum, manganese, lead, arsenic, cadmium, vanadium, and cobalt. Trace elements play a significant role in sexual health, spermatogenesis, sperm maturation, and capacitation. Environmental factors can affect semen quality by impairing spermatogenesis, steroid production, and sperm function, resulting in a decline in male fertility ( 7). Semen quality is the major index of male fertility and is determined on the basis of various factors semen quality and quantity vary according to age, disease, sexual activity, and diet. Endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDCs) alter endocrine system processes and adversely affect the organism itself or its offspring ( 6). The oxidative stress induced by exposure to heavy metals is thought to affect male sperm production. Environmental factors, such as exposure to heavy metals, affect male sperm production and fertility. Genetic abnormalities can lead to spermatogenic disorders and account for 15–30% of male infertility ( 2, 5). Several factors have been reported to cause male infertility, including genetic, environmental, and endocrine factors ( 4). ![]() It is characterized by several features, such as oligospermia, asthenozoospermia, and teratozoospermia. ![]() ![]() Male infertility is mainly diagnosed via semen analysis, including determination of the sperm concentration/total number, motility, and morphology ( 3). An estimated 45% of infertility cases involve only men while 20% involve both women and men ( 2). According to the World Health Organization and the International Committee for Monitoring Assisted Reproductive Technology, infertility is a reproductive system disease defined as the failure to achieve clinical pregnancy after 12 months or more of routine unprotected sex ( 1). Infertility is a disease with psychological, economic, and medical consequences that can lead to trauma and stress.
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